Coordinates:22°03′42″N81°01′55″W / 22.0616°N 81.0319°W /22.0616; -81.0319From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFailed landing operation of Cuba in 1961"Invasion of Cuba" redirects here. For the War of Jenkins' Ear battles, seeInvasion of Cuba (1741). For the United States in Cuba in 1898, seeSpanish–American War.This article cites itssourcesbutdoes not providepage references.You can help by providing page numbers for existing citations.(April 2021)(Learn how and when to remove this message)Bay of Pigs InvasionPart of theCold Warand theConsolidation of the Cuban RevolutionCounterattack byCuban Revolutionary Armed ForcesnearPlaya Girónon 19 April 1961Date17–20 April 1961; 64 years ago(1961-04-20)LocationBay of Pigs, southwestern coast ofCuba22°03′42″N81°01′55″W / 22.0616°N 81.0319°W /22.0616; -81.0319ResultCuban government victoryUS–Oppositionfailure to topple the Cuban governmentAll surviving rebels capturedIncreased cooperationbetween Cuba and theSoviet UnionBelligerentsUnited StatesCuban DRFCubaCommanders and leadersJohn F. KennedyRobert McNamaraRobert F. KennedyMaxwell D. TaylorCharles CabellPepe San Román(POW)Erneido Oliva(POW)Félix RodríguezHiginio "Nino" DíazFrancisco Pérez Castro(POW)Ricardo Montero Duque(POW)Fidel CastroChe GuevaraJuan A. BosqueRamiro ValdésRaúl CastroCarlos FranquiUnits involvedBrigade 2506U.S. Air ForceAlabama Air National GuardU.S. NavyCuban Revolutionary Armed ForcesNational Revolutionary Police ForceNational Revolutionary MilitiaStrength1,500 ground forces[a]16B-26 Invaderbombers4B-26 Marauderbombers45F4U Corsairfighters8C-46transport planes6C-54transport planes5M41light tanks5 supply ships4troop shipsMultiple artillery, mortars,Jeeps, and trucks25,000Cuban Army[2]200,000Militia[2][3]9,000 armedNational Police[2][3][b]4Lockheed T-33jets4Hawker Sea Furyfighters7B-26 Invaderbombers100+ tanksT-34-85medium tanksIS-2heavy tanksSU-100self-propelled gunsSeveral 76.2-mm and 122-mm artillery piecesCasualties and lossesBrigade 2506:118 killed360 wounded[c]1,202 captured (including wounded)[d]Hundreds executed[4]5 B-26 bombers shot downUnited States:4 killed2 B-26 bombers shot down2 supply ships lostCuban Armed Forces:176 killed400–500 wounded[e][5]1 B-26 bomber shot down1 Hawker Sea Fury shot down1 patrol ship sunkUnknown number of T-34-85 tanks and SU-100 guns destroyedNational Militia:2,000 killed and wounded[vague][5]class=notpageimage|Location within CubaTheBay of Pigs Invasion(Spanish:Invasión de Bahía de Cochinos, sometimes calledInvasión de Playa GirónorBatalla de Playa Girónafter thePlaya Girón) was a failed militarylanding operationon the southwestern coast ofCubain April 1961 by the United States of America and theCuban Democratic Revolutionary Front(DRF), consisting of Cuban exiles who opposedFidel Castro'sCuban Revolution,clandestinelyand directly financed by theU.S. government. The operation took place at the height of theCold War, and its failure influenced relations between Cuba, the United States, and theSoviet Union.In 1952, the American-allied dictator GeneralFulgencio Batistaled acoupagainst PresidentCarlos Príoand forced Prío into exile inMiami, Florida. Prío's exile inspired Castro's26th of July Movementagainst Batista. The movement succeeded in overthrowing Batista during the Cuban Revolution in January 1959. CastronationalizedAmerican businesses, including banks, oil refineries, and sugar and coffee plantations.By early 1960, President Eisenhower had begun contemplating ways to remove Castro, in the hopes that he might be replaced by a Cuban government-in-exile, though none existed at the time.[6]In accordance with this goal, Eisenhower eventually approvedRichard Bissell's plan which included training the paramilitary force that would later be used in the Bay of Pigs Invasion.[7]Alongside covert operations, the U.S. also beganits embargo of the island. This led Castro to reach out to the U.S.'s Cold War rival, the Soviet Union, after which the USsevered diplomatic relations.Cuban exiles who had moved to the U.S. following Castro's takeover had formed thecounter-revolutionarymilitary unitBrigade 2506, which was the armed wing of the DRF. The CIA funded the brigade, which also included approximately 60 members of theAlabama Air National Guard,[8]and trained the unit inGuatemala.Over 1,400 paramilitaries, divided into five infantrybattalionsand one paratrooper battalion, assembled and launched from Guatemala andNicaraguaby boat on 17 April 1961. Two days earlier, eight CIA-suppliedB-26bombers had attacked Cuban airfields and then returned to the U.S. On the night of 17 April, the main invasion force landed on the beach at Playa Girón in theBay of Pigs, where it overwhelmed a local revolutionary militia. Initially,José Ramón Fernándezled theCuban Revolutionary Armycounter-offensive; later, Castro took personal control.As the invasion force lost the strategic initiative, the international community found out about the invasion, and U.S. presidentJohn F. Kennedydecided to withhold further air support.[9]The plan, devised during Eisenhower's presidency, had required the involvement of U.S. air and naval forces. Without further air support, the invasion was being conducted with fewer forces than the CIA had deemed necessary. The invading force was defeated within three days by theCuban Revolutionary Armed Forces(Spanish: Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias – FAR) and surrendered on 20 April. Most of the surrendered counter-revolutionary troops were publicly interrogated and put into Cuban prisons with further prosecution.The invasion was aU.S. foreign policyfailure. The Cuban government's victory solidified Castro's role as a national hero and widened the political division between the two formerly allied countries, as well as emboldened other Latin American groups to undermine U.S. influence in the region. As stated in a memoir fromChester Bowles: "The humiliating failure of the invasion shattered the myth of a New Frontier run by a new breed of incisive, fault-free supermen. However costly, it may have been a necessary lesson." It also pushed Cuba closer to the Soviet Union, setting the stage for theCuban Missile Crisisin 1962.Background[edit]United States interventions in Cuba[edit]Further information:Platt AmendmentSince 1492, Cuba had been part of theSpanish Empire. In the late 19th century, Cuban nationalist revolutionaries rebelled against Spanish rule, resulting in three liberation wars: theTen Years' War(1868–1878), theLittle War(1879–1880) and theCuban War of Independence(1895–1898). In 1898, the United States government proclaimed war on the Spanish Empire, resulting in theSpanish–American War. The U.S. subsequently invaded the island and forced theSpanish Armyout. A special operations attempt to land a group of at least 375 Cuban soldiers on the island failed in theBattle of Tayacobain June 1898. However, in July, a second attempt was made and succeeded.On 20 May 1902, a new independent government proclaimed the foundation of theRepublic of Cuba, with U.S. military governorLeonard Woodhanding over control to PresidentTomás Estrada Palma, a Cuban-born U.S. citizen.[10]Subsequently, large numbers of U.S. settlers and businessmen arrived in Cuba, and by 1905, 60% of rural properties were owned by non-Cuban-born North American citizens.[11]Between 1906 and 1909, 5,000U.S. Marineswere stationed across the island, and returned in 1912, 1917, and 1921 to intervene in internal affairs, sometimes at the behest of the Cuban government.[12]Constitution of 1940[edit]Main article:1940 Constitution of CubaIn 1940, Cuba adopted a new constitution which drew on many of the ideas of theCuban Revolution of 1933.[13]TheEncyclopedia of U.S.–Latin American Relationspurports that the 1940 constitution was one of the most progressive constitutions in Latin America, because it legally mandated social security, a minimum wage, health insurance, workers compensation, vacation time, the women's right to vote, and the right to free expression.[14][15]In 1940, the Cuban general and politician Fulgencio Batista was elected under the provisions of the new constitution. After his term ended in 1944, he was not legally allowed to run for a consecutive term, so he stepped down and moved to Florida. Batista returned to Cuba in 1948 to run for a presidential term starting in 1952.[14]CIA interventions[edit]The CIA was founded in 1947 by theNational Security Act. The agency was "a product of theCold War", having been designed to counter the espionage activities of the Soviet Union's own national security agency, theKGB.[16]As the perceived threat of international communism grew larger, the CIA expanded its activities to undertake covert economic, political, and military activities that would advance causes favorable to U.S. interests, often resulting in brutal dictatorships that favored U.S. interests.[16]CIA DirectorAllen Dulleswas responsible for overseeing covert operations across the world, and although widely considered an ineffectual administrator, he was popular among his employees, whom he had protected from the accusations ofMcCarthyism.[17]Cuban Revolution[edit]Main article:Cuban RevolutionUntil Castro, the US was so overwhelmingly influential in Cuba that the American ambassador was the second most important man, sometimes even more important than the Cuban president.—Earl E. T. Smith, former American Ambassador to Cuba, during 1960 testimony to the US Senate[18]In March 1952 Fulgencio Batista seized power on the island, proclaimed himself president, and deposed the discredited president Carlos Prío Socarrás of thePartido Auténtico. Batista canceled the planned presidential elections and described his new system as "disciplined democracy."Although Batista gained some popular support, many Cubans saw it as the establishment of a one-man dictatorship.[19][20][21][22]Many opponents of the Batista regime took to armed rebellion in an attempt to oust the government, sparking the Cuban Revolution. One of these groups was the National Revolutionary Movement (Movimiento Nacional Revolucionario), a militant organization containing largely middle-class members that had been founded by the Professor of PhilosophyRafael García Bárcena.[23][24][25]Another was theDirectorio Revolucionario Estudantil, which had been founded by the Federation of University Students presidentJosé Antonio Echevarría.[26][27][28]However, the best known of these anti-Batista groups was the "26th of July Movement" (MR-26-7), founded by Fidel Castro. With Castro as the MR-26-7's head, the organization was based upon aclandestine cell system, with each cell containing ten members, none of whom knew the whereabouts or activities of the other cells.[29][30][31]Between December 1956 and 1959, Castro led a guerrilla army against the forces of Batista from his base camp in theSierra Maestramountains. Batista's repression of revolutionaries had earned him widespread unpopularity, and by 1958 his armies were in retreat. On 31 December 1958, Batista resigned and fled into exile, taking with him an amassed fortune of more than $300 million.[32][33][34]Provisional government[edit]Main articles:Agrarian reforms in CubaandRevolution first, elections laterSee also:Consolidation of the Cuban RevolutionProvisional President of CubaManuel Urrutiawith rebel leaders Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos, 1959After the success of the revolution a popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice. Although he remained a moderating force and tried to prevent the mass reprisal killings of Batistanos advocated by many Cubans, Castro helped to set up trials of many figures involved in the old regime across the country, resulting in hundreds of executions. Critics, in particular from the U.S. press, argued that many of these did not meet the standards of afair trial, and condemned Cuba's new government as being more interested in vengeance than justice.Castro retaliated strongly against such accusations, proclaiming that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction." In a show of support for this "revolutionary justice," he organized the firstHavanatrial to take place before a mass audience of 17,000 at theSports Palace stadium. When a group of 19 pilots accused of bombing a village was found not guilty, Castro ordered a retrial, in which they were found guilty and each sentenced to 30 years in prison.[35][36][37][38]In early January 1959, Fidel Castro appointed various economists such asFelipe Pazos,Rufo López-Fresquet, Ernesto Bentacourt, Faustino Pérez, andManuel Ray Rivero. By June 1959, these appointed economists would begin to express disillusionment with Castro's proposed economic policies.[39]On 16 February 1959, Castro took on the role ofPrime Minister.[40][41]The presidency fell to Castro's chosen candidate, the lawyerManuel Urrutia Lleó, while members of the MR-26-7 took control of most positions in the cabinet.[42][43][44]In early 1959, the Cuban government began agrarian reforms which redistributed the ownership of Cuba's land. Expropriated lands would be put into state ownership, and the newly formed Instituto de la Reforma Agraria (INRA) was to oversee the expropriations and be headed by Fidel Castro. InCamagüey Provincethere was growing opposition to the Cuban government due to the resistance of conservative farmers to the agrarian reforms and distaste forRaúl CastroandChe Guevara's promotion of communist ideals in the local government and military. The anti-communist opposition within the Cuban government assumed that Fidel Castro was unaware of growing communist influence because of Fidel Castro's frequent public disavowals of communism.[39]In April 1959, Fidel Castro announced that elections were to be postponed in order to allow for the provisional government to focus on domestic reforms. Castro announced this electoral delay with the slogan: "revolution first, elections later".[45][46]These postponed elections would later be outright canceled in May 1960.[47]On 17 July 1959, Conrado Bécquer, the sugar workers' leader, demanded Cuban president Urrutia's resignation. Castro himself resigned as Prime Minister of Cuba in protest, but later that day appeared on television to deliver a lengthy denouncement of Urrutia, claiming that Urrutia had "complicated" the government, and that his "fevered anti-communism" was having a detrimental effect. Castro's sentiments received widespread support as organized crowds surrounded the presidential palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which was duly received. On July 23, Castro resumed his position as premier and appointed loyalistOsvaldo Dorticósas the new president.[48]Diplomatic decline[edit]Fidel Castro speaking to the press in Washington D.C., during his 1959 tour of the United StatesThe U.S. initially recognized Castro's government after the Cuban Revolution ousted Batista,[49]but the relationship quickly soured as Castro repeatedly condemned the U.S. in his speeches for its misdeeds in Cuba over the previous 60 years.[50]Many U.S. officials began to view Castro as a threat to national security as he legalized theCommunist Party,[49]nationalized property owned by U.S. citizens totaling $1.5 billion,[50]and strengthened ties with the Soviet Union.[50]In recently declassified documents, the feelings of the CIA toward Fidel Castro have become more clear. The CIA had written a comprehensive study of the background between the United States and Cuba, beginning with Castro's regime. This study was top secret and around 400 pages in length. At the very beginning of Castro, the CIA needed to decipher the alleged pro-communist beliefs. They had inside men working to make a clear decision on the belief of the new Cuban official. According to Volume III of theOfficial History of the Bay of Pigs, the top-secret CIA document, two agents were placed in the ranks of the communist party of Cuba (Partido Socialista Popular). In 1958, both agents were either captured or snuck their way into the ranks of Fidel Castro's forces. They explained the so-called 'anti-American' sentiment of the regime.[51]In 1959, Fidel Castro planned on visiting America. The invitation was extended by the American Society of Newspaper Editors.[51]The already tense relations between Cuba and the US became increasingly futile. According to the written document detailing the conflict, theOfficial History of the Bay of Pigs, written by the CIA, America was apprehensive. The CIA was aware that Castro would not plan on appealing to Heads of State, but instead, the masses, as he addressed the workers and farmers of America. The CIA was not impressed with Castro and believed that his officials and people among his ranks were Communists, and therefore the Castro regime was a Communist regime. Despite the optimistic and seemingly friendly view that Castro revealed, American officials were not convinced. They perceived Castro to be a serious threat, one that needed to be addressed.[51]Prelude[edit]Huber Matos affair[edit]Main article:Huber Matos affairCuban Army officerHuber Matosafter his arrest, being transported toLa CabañaOn 20 October 1959, Cuban army commander and veteran of theCuban Revolution,Huber Matos, resigned and accused Castro of "burying the revolution". Fifteen of Matos' officers resigned with him. Immediately after the resignation, Castro accused Matos of disloyalty and sentCamilo Cienfuegosto arrest Matos and his accompanying officers. Matos and the officers were taken to Havana and imprisoned inLa Cabaña.[52]Cuban communists later claimed Matos was helping plan a counter-revolution organized by the AmericanCentral Intelligence Agencyand other Castro opponents, an operation that became the Bay of Pigs Invasion.[53]The scandal is noted for its occurrence alongside a greater trend of removals of Castro's former collaborators in the revolution. It marked a turning point where Castro was beginning to exert more personal control over the new government in Cuba. Matos' arresting officer and former collaborator of Castro, Camilo Cienfuegos, would soon die in a mysterious plane crash shortly after the incident.[54]Shortly after Matos' arrest, the prime minister and Che Guevara made a speech to members of the INRA that Cuba would continue to turn in a socialist direction.Manuel Artimeviewed the arrest of Matos and affirmation of socialism in Cuba as precedent for him to resign. On 7 November 1959 his resignation letter from INRA and the revolutionary army was published on the front page ofAvancenewspaper, one of the last newspapers not controlled by the government. Artime then entered an underground organization run by Jesuits in Cuba to hide fugitives; it is unclear what exactly made Artime immediately turn to hiding and later defect.While in a Havana safehouse Artime formed the Movement for Revolutionary Recovery with other dissidents. Artime then contacted the American embassy in Havana, and on 14 December 1959, the CIA arranged for him to travel to the US on a Honduran freighter ship. He became closely involved withGerry Droller(aliasFrank Bender, alias "Mr. B") of the CIA in recruiting and organizing Cuban exiles in Miami for future actions against the Cuban government. Artime's organization MRR thus grew to become the principal counter-revolutionary movement inside Cuba, with supporting members in Miami, Mexico, Venezuela etc. Involved wereTony Varona,José Miró Cardona,Rafael Quintero, andAureliano Arango. Infiltration into Cuba, arms drops, etc. were arranged by the CIA.[54][55][page needed][56][page needed]Artime became the future leader ofBrigade 2506in the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He gained this position from the notoriety he gained after defecting and engaging in a tour of Latin America denouncing the new government in Cuba. This notoriety as a Cuban dissident gave him credit to be picked as the leader for the invasion when it was first conceived by the CIA.[54]Beginning of diplomatic tensions[edit]Further information:United States embargo against CubaandLa Coubre explosionRecognizing that Castro and his government were becoming increasingly hostile and openly opposed to the United States, Eisenhower directed the CIA to begin preparations for invading Cuba and overthrowing the Castro regime.[57]An early plan to thwart Castro was devised on 11 February 1960 by Tracy Barnes, Jake Esterline, Al Cox, Dave Phillips, and Jim Flannery to sabotage both Cuban and American Sugar mills. They, along with Allen Dulles, director of the CIA at that point in time, decided that that would be a good preliminary course of action given that Castro's government was heavily dependent on the sugar industry. If they could sabotage it, that would hurt Castro financially and politically. Unfortunately, President Eisenhower was less than thrilled to attack Cuba's economy and sent Dulles back to the drawing board to devise plans involving covert action. If one was made, then it could be sent to special groups for approval and then discussion with the president again to carry on. Two men, however, decided to run full speed ahead with the sugar sabotage and cut back oil supply to Cuba while raising money for their sugar mission as well while the group in the office began to devise other plans to take down Castro.[58]Richard M. Bissell Jr.was charged with overseeing plans for the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He assembled agents to aid him in the plot, many of whom had worked on the1954 Guatemalan coupsix years before; these includedDavid Philips, Gerry Droller, andE. Howard Hunt.[59]Bissell placed Droller in charge of liaising with anti-Castro segments of theCuban Americancommunity living in the United States, and asked Hunt to fashion agovernment in exile, which the CIA would effectively control.[60]Hunt proceeded to travel to Havana, where he spoke with Cubans from various backgrounds and discovered a brothel through theMercedes-Benzagency.[61]Returning to the U.S., he informed the Cuban Americans with whom he was liaising that they would have to move their base of operations fromFloridatoMexico City, because the State Department refused to permit the training of a militia on U.S. soil. Although unhappy with the news, they conceded to the order.[61]On 17 March 1960, the CIA put forward their plan for the overthrow of Castro's administration to theU.S. National Security Council, where Eisenhower lent his support,[16]approving a CIA budget of $13,000,000 to explore options to remove Castro from power.[62]The first stated objective of the plan was to "bring about the replacement of the Castro regime with one more devoted to the true interests of the Cuban people and more acceptable to the U.S. in such a manner to avoid any appearance of U.S. intervention."[63]Four major forms of action were to be taken to aid anti-communist opposition in Cuba at the time. These included providing a powerful propaganda offensive against the regime, perfecting a covert intelligence network within Cuba, developing paramilitary forces outside of Cuba, and acquiring the necessary logistical support for covert military operations on the island. At this stage, however, it was still not clear that an invasion would take place.[64]Documents obtained from theEisenhower Libraryrevealed that Eisenhower had not ordered or approved plans for an amphibious assault on Cuba.[62]The shipLa Coubreafter exploding in the Havana harbor, 1960. Shortly afterward, Castro would deem the explosion a result of American sabotage, worsening US–Cuba relations.In 1960, Castro's Cuban government ordered the country's oil refineries – then controlled by U.S. corporationsEsso,Standard Oil, andShell– to process crude oil purchased from the Soviet Union, but under pressure from the U.S. government, these companies refused. Castro responded by expropriating the refineries and nationalizing them under state control. In retaliation, the U.S. canceled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most U.S.-owned assets, including banks and sugar mills.[65][66][67]Relations between Cuba and the U.S. were further strained following the explosion and sinking of a French vessel, theLa Coubre, inHavana Harborin March 1960. The cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly mentioned that the U.S. government was guilty of sabotage.[68][69][70]Political opposition in Cuba[edit]Further information:Betrayal thesisSee also:ColetillaIn the immediate aftermath of theCuban Revolution, the rebels appointedJosé Miró Cardonaas prime minister of Cuba. After two months in office, Cardona resigned as Prime Minister, and a year later fled to Miami. While in Miami, Cardona frequently wrote how theCuban Revolutionwas a necessary progressive step politically and economically, but that Castro was betraying the democratic goals of the revolution. Cardona later became heavily involved with the Revolutionary Council that coordinated the Bay of Pigs invasion.[71]Castro's government engaged in various crackdowns on internal opposition, arresting hundreds of dissidents.[72][73]Though it rejected the physical torture Batista's regime had used, Castro's government sanctioned psychological torture, subjecting some prisoners to solitary confinement, rough treatment, hunger, and threatening behavior.[74]After conservative editors and journalists began expressing hostility toward the government following its leftward turn, the pro-Castro printers' trade union began to harass and disrupt editorial staff actions. In January 1960, the government proclaimed that each newspaper was obliged to publish a "clarification" by the printers' union at the end of every article that criticized the government. These "clarifications" signaled the start of press censorship in Castro's Cuba.[75][76]OnMay Day, 1960, Fidel Castro would outright condemn elections as corrupt, and cancel all future elections.[45]Castro claimed the revolution had created an informaldirect democracy, in which the people and the government had a close bond.[77]In contrast, critics condemned the new regime as un-democratic. TheU.S. Secretary of StateChristian Herterannounced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of communist rule, with a one-party state, government control of trade unions, suppression of civil liberties, and the absence of freedom of speech and press.[78]In the summer of 1960, major fidelistas were breaking with Castro, and forming dissident groups. Former government ministers Manuel Ray, and Rufo Lopez-Fresquet, as well as labor leader David Salvador, formed theMovimiento Revolucionario del Pueblo, advocating for a "Fidelismo without Fidel", meaning that Castro's social reforms should continue, but not Castro's personal consolidation of power.[79]In June 1960, theCuban Democratic Revolutionary Frontannounced its existence in Mexico City. It hoped to serve as an umbrella organization for various Cuban opposition groups. The included groups were the Constitutional Democratic Rescue Organization, the Movement for Revolutionary Recovery, the Montecristi Organization, the Christian Democrat Movement, the Triple A Organization, and the Anti-Communist Associations Bloc. The super-group criticized Castro's removal of civil liberties, and demanded the restoration of the constitution of 1940. Most of the participating opposition groups had already been active in the earlier opposition to Batista.[80]Growing diplomatic tensions[edit]The U.S. government was becoming increasingly critical of Castro's revolutionary government. At an August 1960 meeting of theOrganization of American States(OAS) held in Costa Rica, U.S. Secretary of State Christian Herter publicly proclaimed that Castro's administration was "following faithfully theBolshevikpattern" by instituting a single-party political system, taking governmental control oftrade unions, suppressingcivil liberties, and removing both thefreedom of speechandfreedom of the press. He furthermore asserted thatinternational communismwas using Cuba as an "operational base" for spreading revolution in the western hemisphere, and called on other OAS members to condemn the Cuban government for its breach of human rights.[81]In turn, Castro lambasted the treatment of black people and the working classes he had witnessed inNew York City, which he ridiculed as that "superfree, superdemocratic, superhumane, and supercivilized city." Proclaiming that the U.S. poor were living "in the bowels of the imperialist monster," he attacked the mainstream U.S. media and accused it of being controlled by big business.[82]Superficially the U.S. was trying to improve its relationship with Cuba. Several negotiations between representatives from Cuba and the U.S. took place around this time. Repairing international financial relations was the focal point of these discussions. Political relations were another hot topic of these conferences. The U.S. stated that they would not interfere with Cuba's domestic affairs but that the island should limit its ties with the Soviet Union.[83]Tensions percolated when the CIA began to act on its desires to snuff out Castro. Efforts to assassinate Castro officially commenced in 1960,[84]though the U.S. public did not become aware of them until 1975, when the SenateChurch Committee, set up to investigate CIA abuses, released a report entitled "Alleged Assassination Plots Involving Foreign Leaders".[84]Some methods that the CIA undertook to assassinate Castro were creative, for example: "poison pills, an exploding seashell, and a planned gift of a diving suit contaminated with toxins."[84]More traditional ways of assassinating Castro were also planned, such as elimination via high-powered rifles with telescopic sights.[84]In August 1960, the CIA contacted theCosa Nostra in Chicagowith the intention to draft simultaneous assassinations of Fidel Castro,Raúl Castro, and Che Guevara. In exchange, if the operation were a success and a pro-U.S. government were restored in Cuba, the CIA agreed that theMafiawould get their "monopoly on gaming, prostitution and drugs".[85][86]In 1963, at the same time the Kennedy administration initiated secret peace overtures to Castro, Cuban revolutionary and undercover CIA agentRolando Cubelawas tasked with killing Castro by CIA officialDesmond Fitzgerald, who portrayed himself as a personal representative ofRobert F. Kennedy.[84]Cuban newspaper announcing the nationalization of industries (October 16, 1960)On 13 October 1960, the U.S. government prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba – the exceptions being medicines and certain foodstuffs – marking the start ofan economic embargo. In retaliation, theCuban National Institute for Agrarian Reformtook control of 383 private-run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 U.S. companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized, includingCoca-ColaandSears Roebuck.[87][88]On 16 December, the U.S. ended its import quota of Cuban sugar.[89]By 31 October 1960, most guerrilla infiltrations and supply drops directed by the CIA into Cuba had failed, and developments of further guerrilla strategies were replaced by plans to mount an initial amphibious assault, with a minimum of 1,500 men. The election of John Kennedy as U.S. president sped up preparations for the invasion;[62]Kennedy had specifically denied any support for Batista supporters: "Batista murdered 20,000 Cubans in seven years – a greater proportion of the Cuban population than the proportion of Americans who died in both World Wars, and he turned Democratic Cuba into a complete police state – destroying every individual liberty."[90]1960 presidential election[edit]Further information:1960 United States presidential electionNixonandKennedydebating during the 1960 US presidential electionCuba became a focal point in the 1960 U.S. presidential election, with both candidates promising to "get tough with the Communists".[91]Kennedy in particular attackedNixonand the Eisenhower administration for allowing communism to flourish so close to the U.S. In response, Nixon revealed plans for an embargo against Cuba, but the Democrats criticized it as ineffective.[92]Both main candidates, Richard Nixon of theRepublican Partyand Kennedy of theDemocratic Party, campaigned on the issue of Cuba, with both candidates taking a hardline stance on Castro.[93]Nixon – who was thenvice president– insisted that Kennedy should not be informed of the military plans, to which Dulles conceded.[94]To Nixon's chagrin, the Kennedy campaign released a scathing statement on the Eisenhower administration's Cuba policy on 20 October 1960 which said that "we must attempt to strengthen the non-Batista democratic anti-Castro forces [...] who offer eventual hope of overthrowing Castro", claiming that "Thus far these fighters for freedom have had virtually no support from our Government."[95]At the last election debate the next day, Nixon called Kennedy's proposed course of action "dangerously irresponsible" and even lectured Kennedy on international law,[96]in effect denigrating the policy that Nixon himself favored.[97]Ultimately, Nixon lost the election, convinced that Cuba had brought him down,[98]and Kennedy inherited the thorny issue near the height of its prominence.Despite the focus on Cuba in the elections and deteriorating relations between Cuba and the U.S. – exacerbated when Castro accused most of the U.S. State Department personnel in Havana of being spies and subsequently ordering them to leave the country, to which Eisenhower responded by withdrawing recognition of Castro's government –[99]Briefing of Kennedy[edit]Eisenhower greets Kennedy at the White House. December 6, 1960.On 18 November 1960, Dulles and Bissell first briefed President-elect Kennedy on the outline plans. Having experience in actions such as the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, Dulles was confident that the CIA was capable of overthrowing the Cuban government. On 29 November 1960, Eisenhower met with the chiefs of the CIA, Defense, State and Treasury departments to discuss the new concept. None expressed any objections, and Eisenhower approved the plans with the intention of persuading Kennedy of their merit. On 8 December 1960, Bissell presented outline plans to the "Special Group" while declining to commit details to written records. Further development of the plans continued, and on 4 January 1961 they consisted of an intention to establish a "lodgement" by 750 men at an undisclosed site in Cuba, supported by considerable air power.[100]Eisenhower had meetings with President-elect Kennedy at theWhite Houseon 6 December 1960 and 19 January 1961.[62]In one conversation, Eisenhower stated that since March 1960, the U.S. government had trained "in small units – but we had done nothing else – [...] some hundreds of refugees" in Guatemala, "a few in Panama, and some in Florida."[62]However, Eisenhower also expressed disapproval of the idea of Batista returning to power and was waiting for the exiles to agree on a leader who was opposed to both Castro and Batista.[62]As Eisenhower's tenure in office expired, John F. Kennedy replaced him as the president of the United States. Having come to power and being adequately informed about the plans to invade Cuba, President Kennedy did not take any action until mid-March 1961.[101]Kennedy hesitated to commit to the CIA's plans. UnderDullesand Bissell's insistence of the increasingly urgent need to do something with the troops being trained in Guatemala, Kennedy eventually agreed, although to avoid the appearance of American involvement, he requested the operation be moved from the city ofTrinidad, Cuba to a less conspicuous location.[102]Thus, the final plan was for an invasion at the Bay of Pigs.Kennedy's immediate actions concerning the invasion could be traced to 11 and 15 March 1961, and were directly connected to the consideration of the best possible invasion strategy. First, it was the TRINIDAD plan that was debated which, before Kennedy took office, was commonly agreed as the main plan to be deployed during the Cuban invasion.[103]The TRINIDAD plan aimed to use ships and boats to land troops on the coast of Cuba.[104]This was to be done in conjunction with the deployment of soldiers from airplanes and helicopters to quickly secure areas inside Cuba.[105]The support from the sea and air was planned to start simultaneously with the military landing deployment, and not before them.In addition, the TRINIDAD plan also considered a preemptive attack on Castro's airfields in the days leading up to the main operation which was termed the Pre-Day strikes.[105]This was aimed to weaken Cuba's aerial defense capabilities before the actual invasion was to be carried out. Among other things, the TRINIDAD plan was to utilize six US pilots. This was such that each pilot, flying aB-26, was to hit one or more of the fields where Castro's combat aircraft were stationed.[105]However, with Kennedy assuming power, and as discussions continued, the TRINIDAD plan became less strategic, and was to be replaced with a more strategic plan named the ZAPATA.This was not just a simple tweak but a shift toward a more specific target area within Cuba. It aimed to focus on executing a combined sea and air landing operation in the ZAPATA region.[106]The ZAPATA plan anticipated the immediate use of B-26 aircraft, which were to be brought in and operated from a temporary airstrip at Playa Girón as soon as the troops landed. President Kennedy's call to settle on the ZAPATA plan was based on the advice of Mr. Rusk, who was a CIA planner. Kennedy and the CIA viewed ZAPATA as a more immediate air support that would ensure the protection of the invaders from Castro's counterattacks. And, more importantly, as cover to maintain the secrecy of the U.S. involvement to the outside world.Preparation[edit]Kennedy's approval[edit]John F. Kennedyanswered difficult questions on Cuba on 12 April, only five days before the invasion.On 28 January 1961, Kennedy was briefed, together with all the major departments, on the latest plan (code-namedOperation Pluto), which involved 1,000 men landed in a ship-borne invasion at Trinidad, Cuba, about 270 km (170 mi) south-east of Havana, at the foothills of the Escambray Mountains inSancti Spiritusprovince. Kennedy authorized the active departments to continue and to report progress.[107]Trinidad had good port facilities, it was closer to many existing counter-revolutionary activities, and it offered an escape route into the Escambray Mountains. That scheme was subsequently rejected by the State Department because the airfield there was not large enough for B-26 bombers and, since B-26s were to play a prominent role in the invasion, this would destroy the façade that the invasion was just an uprising with no American involvement. Secretary of StateDean Ruskraised some eyebrows by contemplating airdropping a bulldozer to extend the airfield.[97]Kennedy rejected Trinidad, preferring a more low-key locale.[108]On 4 April 1961, Kennedy approved the Bay of Pigs plan (also known asOperation Zapata), because it had a sufficiently long airfield, it was farther away from large groups of civilians than the Trinidad plan, and it was less "noisy" militarily, which would make denial of direct U.S. involvement more plausible.[109]The invasion landing area was changed to beaches bordering the Bahía de Cochinos (Bay of Pigs) inLas Villas Province, 150 km southeast of Havana, and east of theZapata Peninsula. The landings were to take place at Playa Girón (code-namedBlue Beach),Playa Larga(code-namedRed Beach), and Caleta Buena Inlet (code-namedGreen Beach).[110][page needed][111][page needed][112][113][page needed]Top aides to Kennedy, such as Rusk and both joint chiefs of staff, later said that they had hesitations about the plans but muted their thoughts. Some leaders blamed these problems on the "Cold War mindset" or the determination of the Kennedy brothers to oust Castro and fulfill campaign promises.[110][page needed]Military advisers were skeptical of its potential for success as well.[62]Despite these hesitations, Kennedy still ordered the attack to take place.[62]Recruitment and training[edit]Douglas A-26 Invader"B-26" bomber aircraft disguised as a Cuban modelBeginning in April 1960, Democratic Revolutionary Front rebels were taken to Useppa Island, Florida, which was covertly leased by the CIA at the time. Useppa Island served as the locale for assessment and training.[1][page needed][114]Once the rebels had arrived, they were greeted by instructors fromU.S. Army Special Forcesgroups, members of theU.S. Air Forceand theAlabama Air National Guard, and members of the CIA. The rebels were trained in amphibious assault tactics, guerrilla warfare, infantry and weapons training, unit tactics, and land navigation.[115]At the head of the operation was Joaquin Sanjenis Perdomo, former police chief in Cuba, and intelligence officer Rafael De Jesus Gutierrez. The group included David Atlee Philips, Howard Hunt, andDavid Sánchez Morales.[116]The recruiting of Cuban exiles in Miami was organized by CIA staff officers E. Howard Hunt and Gerry Droller. Detailed planning, training, and military operations were conducted byJacob Esterline, ColonelJack Hawkins,Félix Rodríguez, Rafael De Jesus Gutierrez, and Colonel Stanley W. Beerli, under the direction of Richard Bissell and his deputyTracy Barnes.[113][page needed]The force that became Brigade 2506 started with 28 men, who initially were told that their training was being paid for by an anonymous Cuban millionaire émigré, but the recruits soon guessed who was paying the bills, calling their supposed anonymous benefactor "Uncle Sam", and the pretense was dropped.[117]The overall leader was Dr. Manuel Artime while the military leader wasJosé "Pepe" Peréz San Román, a formerCuban National Armyofficer imprisoned under both Batista and Castro.[117]Cuban defectors practicing parachute dropsFor the increasing number of recruits, infantry training was carried out at a CIA-run base code-namedJMTrax. The base was on the Pacific coast of Guatemala betweenQuetzaltenangoandRetalhuleu, in the Helvetia coffee plantation.[118][119]The exiled group named themselves Brigade 2506 (Brigada Asalto 2506).[56][page needed]In summer 1960, an airfield (code-namedJMadd, akaRayo Base) was constructed near Retalhuleu, Guatemala.[119]Gunnery and flight training of Brigade 2506 aircrews was carried out by personnel from the Alabama Air National Guard under General Reid Doster, using at least sixDouglas B-26 Invadersin the markings of theGuatemalan Air Force.[120]An additional 26 B-26s were obtained from U.S. military stocks, 'sanitized' at'Field Three'to obscure their origins, and about 20 of them were converted for offensive operations by removal of defensive armament, standardization of the 'eight-gun nose', and addition of underwing drop tanks and rocket racks.[121][122][page needed]Paratroop training was at a base nicknamedGarrapatenango, near Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. Training for boat handling and amphibious landings took place atViequesIsland,Puerto Rico.Tank training for the Brigade 2506M41 Walker Bulldoglight tanks[citation needed]took place atFort Knox,KentuckyandFort Benning,Georgia. Underwater demolition and infiltration training took place atBelle ChassenearNew Orleans.[113][page needed]To create a navy, the CIA purchased five cargo ships from the Cuban-owned, Miami-based Garcia Line, thereby giving "plausible deniability" as the State Department had insisted no U.S. ships could be involved in the invasion.[123]The first four of the five ships, namely theAtlántico, theCaribe, theHouston, and theRío Escondidowere to carry enough supplies and weapons to last thirty days while theLake Charleshad 15 days of supplies and was intended to land the provisional government of Cuba.[123]The ships were loaded with supplies at New Orleans and sailed toPuerto Cabezas, Nicaragua.[123]Additionally, the invasion force had two oldLanding Craft Infantry(LCI) ships, theBlagarandBarbara JfromWorld War IIthat were part of the CIA's "ghost ship" fleet and served as command ships for the invasion.[123]The crews of the supply ships were Cuban while the crews of the LCIs were Americans, borrowed by the CIA from theMilitary Sea Transportation Service(MSTS).[123]One CIA officer wrote that MSTS sailors were all professional and experienced but not trained for combat.[123]Acquiring supplies[edit]From June to September 1960, the most time-consuming task was the acquisition of the aircraft to be used in the invasion. The anti-Castro effort depended on the success of these aircraft. Although models such as theCurtiss C-46 CommandoandDouglas C-54 Skymasterwere to be used for airdrops and bomb drops as well as for infiltration and exfiltration, they were looking for an aircraft that could perform tactical strikes. The two models that were going to be decided on were the Navy'sDouglas AD-5 Skyraideror the Air Force's light bomber, the Douglas B-26 Invader. The AD-5 was readily available and ready for the Navy to train pilots, and in a meeting among a special group in the office of theDeputy Director of the CIA, the AD-5 was approved and decided upon. After a cost-benefit analysis, word was sent that the AD-5 plan would be abandoned and the B-26 would take its place.[124]In November 1960, the Retalhuleu recruits took part in quelling an officers' rebellion in Guatemala, in addition to the intervention of theU.S. Navy.[125][118]The CIA transported people, supplies, and arms from Florida to all the bases at night, usingDouglas C-54transports.[citation needed]On 9 April 1961, Brigade 2506 personnel, ships, and aircraft started transferring from Guatemala to Puerto Cabezas.[126]Curtiss C-46swere also used for transport between Retalhuleu and a CIA base (code-namedJMTide, akaHappy Valley) at Puerto Cabezas.Facilities and limited logistical assistance were provided by the governments of GeneralMiguel Ydígoras Fuentesin Guatemala, and GeneralLuis Somoza Debaylein Nicaragua, but no military personnel or equipment of those nations was directly employed in the conflict.[122][page needed][127][page needed]Both governments later received military training and equipment, including some of the CIA's remaining B-26s.[citation needed]In early 1961, Cuba's army possessed Soviet-designedT-34-85medium tanks,IS-2heavy tanks,SU-100tank destroyers, 122 mmhowitzers, other artillery and small arms plusItalian105 mm howitzers. The Cuban air force armed inventory included B-26 Invader light bombers,Hawker Sea Furyfighters, andLockheed T-33jets, all remaining from theFuerza Aérea del Ejército de Cuba, the Cuban air force of the Batista government.[56][page needed]Anticipating an invasion, Che Guevara stressed the importance of an armed civilian populace, stating: "all of the Cuban people must become a guerrilla army; each and every Cuban must learn to handle and if necessary use firearms in defense of the nation".[128]Cuban Revolutionary Council[edit]Three weeks before the invasion, in March 1961, the Cuban Revolutionary Council (Spanish:Consejo Revolucionario Cubano, CRC) was formed, with CIA assistance, to "coordinate and direct" the activities of theCuban Democratic Revolutionary Front.José Miró Cardona, formerPrime Minister of Cuba, was chairman of the Cuban Revolutionary Council. Miró became the de facto leader-in-waiting of the intended post-invasion Cuban government.[129][page needed]The CRC comprised the formerCuban Democratic Revolutionary Front, with the addition of theMovimiento Revolucionario del Pueblo.Manuel Artimewas sent to Guatemala to serve as the Revolutionary Council's liaison with the invaders in training.[130]The CRC's board of directors were:Antonio de Varona, Justo Carrillo,Carlos Hevia, Antonio Maceo,Manuel Ray, andManuel Artime.[131]The stated goal of the Cuban Revolutionary Council was to establish a provisional government in Cuba, and reestablish the constitution of 1940.[132]Security of Cuba[edit]Cuban militia in Havana, 1959Cuban government personnel[edit]Already, Fidel Castro was known as, and addressed as, the commander-in-chief ofCuban Armed Forces, with a nominal base at "Point One" in Havana. In early April 1961, his brother Raúl Castro was assigned command of forces in the east, based inSantiago de Cuba. Che Guevara commanded western forces, based inPinar del Río. MajorJuan Almeida Bosquecommanded forces in the central provinces, based inSanta Clara. Raúl Curbelo Morales was head of theCuban Air Force.Sergio del Valle Jiménezwas Director of Headquarters Operations at Point One.Efigenio Ameijeiraswas the Head of the Revolutionary National Police.Ramiro Valdés MenéndezwasMinister of the Interiorand head of G-2 (Seguridad del Estado, or state security). His deputy was ComandanteManuel Piñeiro Losada, also known as 'Barba Roja'. CaptainJosé Ramón Fernándezwas head of the School of Militia Leaders (Cadets) at Matanzas.[2][page needed][133][134][page needed][135][136]Other commanders of units during the conflict included Major Raúl Menéndez Tomassevich, Major Filiberto Olivera Moya, Major René de los Santos, MajorAugusto Martínez Sánchez, Major Félix Duque, Major Pedro Miret, Major Flavio Bravo, MajorAntonio Lussón, Captain Orlando Pupo Peña, CaptainVictor Dreke, Captain Emilio Aragonés, Captain Ángel Fernández Vila,Arnaldo Ochoa, and Orlando Rodríguez Puerta.[1][page needed][137][page needed]Soviet-trained Spanish advisors were brought to Cuba fromEastern Bloccountries. These advisors had held high staff positions in the Soviet armies during World War II and became known as "Hispano-Soviets," having long resided in the Soviet Union. The most senior of these was the Spanish communist veterans of theSpanish Civil War,Francisco Ciutat de Miguel,Enrique Líster, and Cuban-bornAlberto Bayo.[138]Ciutat de Miguel (Cuban alias: Ángel Martínez Riosola, commonly referred to as "Angelito"), was an advisor to forces in the central provinces. The role of other Soviet agents at the time is uncertain, but some of them acquired greater fame later. For example, KGB colonels Vadim Kochergin and Victor Simanov were first sighted in Cuba in about September 1959.[139][140][141]Internal strife[edit]Further information:Escambray rebellionMilitant counter-revolutionary groups developed soon after the revolution in an attempt to overthrow the new regime. Undertaking armed attacks against government forces, some set up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountainous regions, leading to the six-yearEscambray Rebellion. These dissidents were funded and armed by various foreign sources, including the exiled Cuban community, the CIA andRafael Trujillo's regime in theDominican Republic.[142][143][144]During this conflict former rebels from the war against Batista took different sides.[145]On 3 April 1961, a bomb attack on militia barracks inBayamokilled four militia and wounded eight more. On 6 April, the Hershey Sugar factory inMatanzaswas destroyed by sabotage.[146]On 14 April 1961, guerrillas led by Agapito Rivera fought Cuban government forces inVilla Clara Province, where several government troops were killed and others wounded.[146]Also on 14 April 1961, aCubanaairliner was hijacked and flown toJacksonville, Florida; resultant confusion then helped the staged 'defection' of a B-26 military aircraft and pilot atMiamion 15 April.[1][page needed][147]Prior warnings of invasion[edit]The Cuban security apparatus knew the invasion was coming, in part due to indiscreet talk by members of the brigade, some of which was heard in Miami and repeated in U.S. and foreign newspaper reports. Nevertheless, days before the invasion, multiple acts of sabotage were carried out, such as theEl Encanto fire, an arson attack in a department store in Havana on 13 April that killed one shop worker.[1][page needed][148]The Cuban government also had been warned by senior KGB agents Osvaldo Sánchez Cabrera and 'Aragon', who died violently before and after the invasion, respectively.[149]The general Cuban population was not well informed of intelligence matters, which the US sought to exploit with propaganda through CIA-fundedRadio Swan.[150]As of May 1960, almost all means of public communication were under public ownership.[151][152]On 29 April 2000, aWashington Postarticle, "Soviets Knew Date of Cuba Attack", reported that the CIA had information indicating that the Soviet Union knew the invasion was going to take place and did not inform Kennedy. On 13 April 1961,Radio Moscowbroadcast an English-language newscast, predicting the invasion "in a plot hatched by the CIA" using paid "criminals" within a week. The invasion took place four days later.[153]David Ormsby-Gore, theBritish ambassador to the U.S., stated that British intelligence analysis made available to the CIA indicated that the Cuban people were overwhelmingly behind Castro and that there was no likelihood of mass defections or insurrections.[154]Initiation[edit]Fleet sets sail[edit]Aboard the invasion flagship Blagar, off the Cuban coast, April 16, 1961, Pepe San Roman (left) and Artime salute the Cuban flag.Under cover of darkness, the invasion fleet set sail from Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua and headed toward the Bay of Pigs on the night of 14 April.[155]After on-loading the attack planes inNorfolk Naval Baseand taking on prodigious quantities of food and supplies sufficient for the seven weeks at-sea to come, the crew knew from the hasty camouflage of the ship and aircraft identifying numbers that a secret mission was on hand. Combatants were supplied with forged Cuban local currency, in the form of 20Peso bills, identifiable by the serial numbers F69 and F70. The aircraft carrier group of theUSSEssexhad been at sea for nearly a month before the invasion; its crew was well aware of the impending battle. En route,Essexhad made a night time stop at a Navy arms depot inCharleston, South Carolina, to load tactical nuclear weapons to be held ready during the cruise. The afternoon of the invasion, one accompanying destroyer rendezvoused withEssexto have a gun mount repaired and put back into action; the ship displayed numerous shell casings on deck from its shore bombardment actions. On 16 AprilEssexwas atgeneral quartersfor most of a day; SovietMiG-15smade feints and close range fly overs that night.[156]Air attacks on airfields[edit]During the night of 14/15 April, adiversionary landingwas planned nearBaracoa,Oriente Province, by about 164 Cuban exiles commanded by Higinio 'Nino' Diaz. Their mother ship, namedLa PlayaorSanta Ana, had sailed fromKey Westunder a Costa Rican ensign. Several U.S. Navy destroyers were stationed offshore nearGuantánamo Bayto give the appearance of an impending invasion fleet.[157]The reconnaissance boats turned back to the ship after their crews detected activities by Cuban Militia forces along the coastline.[2][page needed][56][page needed][134][page needed][158][4][159]As a result of those activities, at daybreak, areconnaissancesortie over the Baracoa area was launched from Santiago de Cuba by an FART-33, piloted by Lt. Orestes Acosta, and it crashed fatally into the sea. On 17 April, his name was falsely quoted as a defector among the disinformation circulating in Miami.[160][page needed]The CIA, with the backing of the Pentagon, had originally requested permission to producesonic boomsover Havana on 14 April to create confusion. The request was a form of psychological warfare that had proven successful in theoverthrow of Jacobo Arbenzin Guatemala in 1954. The point was to create confusion in Havana and have it be a distraction to Castro if they could "break all the windows in town."[161]The request was denied, however, since officials thought such would be too obvious a sign of involvement by the United States.[161]On 15 April 1961, at about 06:00, Cuban local time, eight B-26B Invader bombers in three groups simultaneously attacked three Cuban airfields atSan Antonio de los Bañosand at Ciudad Libertad (formerly named Campo Columbia), both near Havana, plus theAntonio Maceo International Airportat Santiago de Cuba. The B-26s had been prepared by the CIA on behalf of Brigade 2506 and had been painted with thefalse flagmarkings of the FAR. Each came armed with bombs, rockets, and machine guns. They had flown from Puerto Cabezas in Nicaragua and were crewed by exiled Cuban pilots and navigators of the self-styledFuerza Aérea de Liberación(FAL). The purpose of the action (code-namedOperation Puma) was reportedly to destroy most or all of the armed aircraft of the FAR in preparation for the main invasion.At Santiago, the two attackers destroyed aC-47transport, aPBY Catalinaflying boat, two B-26s, and a civilianDouglas DC-3plus various other civilian aircraft. At San Antonio, the three attackers destroyed three FAR B-26s, one Sea Fury, and one T-33, and one attacker diverted toGrand Caymanbecause of low fuel. Aircraft that diverted to the Caymans were seized by the United Kingdom since they were suspicious that the Cayman Islands might be perceived as a launch site for the invasion.[161]At Ciudad Libertad, the three attackers destroyed only non-operational aircraft such as twoRepublic P-47 Thunderbolts.One of those attackers was damaged by anti-aircraft fire and ditched about 50 km (31 mi) north of Cuba, with the loss of its crew Daniel Fernández Mon and Gaston Pérez. Its companion B-26, also damaged, continued north and landed atBoca Chica Field, Florida. The crew, José Crespo and Lorenzo Pérez-Lorenzo, were grantedpolitical asylum, and made their way back to Nicaragua the next day via Miami and the daily CIA C-54 flight fromOpa-Locka AirporttoPuerto Cabezas Airport. Their B-26, purposely numbered 933, the same as at least two other B-26s that day for disinformation reasons, was held until late on 17 April.[160][page needed][162]Deception flight[edit]About 90 minutes after the eight B-26s had taken off from Puerto Cabezas to attack Cuban airfields, another B-26 departed on a deception flight that took it close to Cuba but headed north toward Florida. Like the bomber groups, it carried false FAR markings and the same number 933 as painted on at least two of the others. Before departure, the cowling from one of the aircraft's two engines was removed by CIA personnel, fired upon, then re-installed to give the false appearance that the aircraft had taken ground fire at some point during its flight. At a safe distance north of Cuba, the pilot feathered the engine with the pre-installed bullet holes in the cowling, radioed amaydaycall, and requested immediate permission to land at Miami International airport. He landed and taxied to the military area of the airport near an Air Force C-47 and was met by several government cars. The pilot was Mario Zúñiga, formerly of the FAEC (Cuban Air Force under Batista), and after landing, he masqueraded as 'Juan Garcia' and publicly claimed that three colleagues had also defected from the FAR. The next day he was granted political asylum, and that night he returned to Puerto Cabezas via Opa-Locka.[122][page needed][160][page needed][163]This deception operation was successful at the time in convincing much of the world media that the attacks on the FAR bases were the work of an internal anti-Communist faction and did not involve outside actors.[164]Reactions[edit]At 10:30 on 15 April at theUnited Nations(UN), Cuban Foreign MinisterRaúl Roaaccused the U.S. of aggressive air attacks against Cuba and that afternoon formally tabled a motion to the Political (First) Committee of the UN General Assembly. Only days earlier, the CIA had unsuccessfully attempted to entice Raúl Roa into defecting.[161]In response to Roa's accusations before the UN,United States Ambassador to the United NationsAdlai Stevensonstated that U.S. armed forces would not "under any conditions" intervene in Cuba and that the U.S. would do everything in its power to ensure that no U.S. citizens would participate in actions against Cuba. He also stated that Cuban defectors had carried out the attacks that day, and he presented aUPIwire photo of Zúñiga's B-26 in Cuban markings at Miami airport.[126]Stevenson was later embarrassed to realize that the CIA had lied to him.[112]Kennedy supported the statement made by Stevenson: "I have emphasized before that this was a struggle of Cuban patriots against a Cuban dictator. While we could not be expected to hide our sympathies, we made it repeatedly clear that the armed forces of this country would not intervene in any way".[165]On 15 April, the Cuban national police, led by Efigenio Ameijeiras, started the process of arresting thousands of suspected anti-revolutionary individuals and detaining them in provisional locations such as theKarl Marx Theatre, the moat of La Cabaña and the Principe Castle, all in Havana, and the baseball park in Matanzas.[48][page needed]In total, between 20,000 and 100,000 people would be arrested.[166]Operation Mars[edit]The "Special Battalion" of Brigade 2506, consisting of 160 guerrilla warfighters under the command of Higinio Nino Diaz Ane, was tasked with carrying out "Operation Mars."[167][168]Operation Mars was a separate mission from Operation Pluto and unknown to JFK that was organized by the former Vice President Richard Nixon and CIA Director George Bush[dubious–discuss]alongside their Cuban exile counterparts.[167][168]The intention of Mars was to land at the beach (playa) near Baracoa to provide afeint attackfor the primary landing force at Giron.[167][168]Men of the Special Battalion trained separately from the men of Operation Pluto, atCamp Beauregard.[168]On the night of 15/16 April, the Nino Diaz group failed in a second attempted diversionary landing at a different loca

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